Govandi Station Road, Deonar

2.1.2. Work Participation Rates (Main+Marginal) by Residence

The crude work participation rate in rural India was around 39 per cent in 1981, which has    increased to 40 per cent in 1991 and 42 per cent in 2001.  This is true for both males and females (see Table 2.1.2). It is observed that in all EAG states, except Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and some northern states/ union territories like, Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh and Delhi the female work participation was very low and the gap between both the sexes was high. However, in the northeastern states of India the difference between male and female work participation rates is the lowest than rest of the country. Kerala and Lakshadweep stand discretely than rest of India as the work participation of females in the rural areas is showing a declining trend during the reference period.

Figure: 2.1.5 Crude Work Participation Rate (Main + Marginal) by Residence in India, 1981-2001

Figure 2.1.5 shows the crude work participation rates (Main+Marginal) by residence in India during 1981 to 2001. Figure depicts that the work participation rates remained almost static in the urban areas during 1981-1991, but increased slightly in 2001. While there has been a secular increase in participation rates among females in both rural and urban areas during 1981-2001, same is not true for males during the said period. In rural areas, male work participarticipation has been declining throughout this period, whereas in urban areas the increase has been noticed only during the last decade (1991-2001).

2.1.3. Work Participation Rates (Main Workers), 1981-2001

It has been mentioned earlier that workers are of two types based on the duration of work during the last year. As such, the main workers assume special importance as they are engaged in work during the major part of the year. Thus, the study of work participation rates based on main workers shows the extent of workforce fully employed. It is found that the crude work participation rate of female main workers is always lower than their male counterparts during the study period at the national level as well as in the states and union territories.  However, an increase in crude work participation of female main workers is marked during 1981-91 but declined in 2001    At the national level, a declining trend observed in the work participation of male main workers is very obvious; it was around 52 percent in 1981  which declined by 1 percent in 1991 (51 per cent) and further declined by 5 percent in 2001 (45 per cent) ( see figure 2.1.6).

Figure: 2.1.7 Crude Work Participation Rate (Main) India and States, 1981

Further, it may be noted that except in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu the gender disparity in workforce is high in the case of main workers. Punjab shows the highest disparity in work participation rate between the two sexes.

Figure: 2.1.8Crude Work Participation (Main) India and States, 1991

Figure: 2.1.9 Crude Work Participation Rate (Main) India and States, 2001

2.1.4. Work Participation Rates, Main Workers, by Residence

The work participation rate by main worker status is higher in rural than urban areas (see figure 2.1.10). It may be noted from Table 2.1.5 that the work participation of rural male workers in the main work category has increased slightly in 1991 over 1981 but there is a noticeable decline in 2001 at the all India level. In case of rural females in the main work category we find a slight increase in the work participation during the period 1981-91 but a decline in 2001 similar to males at the all India level. The difference between rural males and females in the main work category is lower in most of the northeastern states and also in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. On the other hand in rural areas of the northern states and union territories like Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi and Chandigarh, the work participation of females in the main work category is not only lower than rest of the states and union territories but there is a wide gap between males and females in both rural and urban areas. But a significant increase has been observed in the rural female work participation rates in 2001. For example, in case of Punjab, the work participation of rural females in the main work category was only around 2 per cent in 1981 and 1991 but it increased to 14 per cent in 200. Same trend is also found in Haryana.

Figure: 2.1.10 Crude Work Participation Rate of Main Workers by Residence, India, 1981-2001

2.1.5. Work Participation Rates, Marginal Workers, 1981-2001

       The work participation rate of marginal workers remains more or less constant during the period 1981 to1991, but there is a substantial increase in 2001  (see figure 2.1.11). It is found that the female workers show faster increase than the male workers during the reference period at the national level and also in most of the states and union territories.

Figure: 2.1.11 Crude Work Participation Rate of Marginal Workers by Sex, India, 1981-2001

         It may also be observed from figure 2.1.11 that during 1981-1991 there is a slight decline in the work participation rates of male marginal workers but in 2001 there is a remarkable increase is seen along with female marginal workers.

At the state level except Uttar Pradesh, all other EAG states have higher female work participation rates in the marginal work category (see Table 2.1.7). However, in 2001 the entire picture of male and female work participation rates in the marginal work category has changed. The work participation rates of both sexes in marginal category have increased remarkably in most of the states and male and female disparity in the participation of marginal workforce has been reduced in 2001 census (see figures 2.1.12 to 14). In all the three newly created states of 2001 (Uttaranchal, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand), the work participation rates of both male and female workers in the marginal work category are found to be fairly high than their parent states

Figure: 2.1.12 Crude Work Participation Rate (Marginal) in India and States, 1981

Figure: 2.1.13 Crude Work Participation Rate (Marginal) in India and States, 1991

Figure: 2.1.14 Crude Work Participation Rate of Marginal Workers in India and States, 2001

2.1.6. Work Participation Rate, Marginal Workers by Residence

         Rural areas have higher work participation rates in the marginal work category than the urban areas (see figure 2.1.15). This is also true for most of the states and union territories.  Table 2.1.8 shows that in rural areas of all the states and union territories, the work participation rates in the marginal work category are quite higher for female than male workers except Kerala and Lakshadweep where the rate is high in case of males. In the rural areas of states like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, the work participation of females in the marginal work category are always higher than the national level. On the other hand, in Kerala the work participation rate of male workers (about 9 per cent) is comparatively higher than female workers (nearly 5 per cent) as per the 2001 census.

Figure: 2.1.15 Crude Work Participation Rate (Marginal) by Residence, India, 1981-2001

The work participation rates of females in marginal category are higher than the males in both rural and urban areas. Not only females are more engaged in marginal workforce and the rates are increasing rapidly even. But, this is also true for male workforce as well. (see Tables 2.1.8 and 2.1.9). The crude work participation rate (marginal) in the urban areas of India experienced around 2 percent increase during 1991-2001- higher for males than females. Table: 2.1.9 shows that the urban areas of northern states/union territories like Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh and the national capital Delhi have very low work participation rates for both males and females in marginal categories. On the other hand, the northeastern states like Manipur and Mizoram show higher work participation rates in marginal category, and also females are much highly engaged as marginal workforce than males. Amongst the EAG states, the work participation rates of female workers in the marginal work category are much higher in the rural areas of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and the differences between male and female are also found wide. The same is also true for better off states like Gujarat and Haryana.

2.1.7 Work Participation Rates  (Main+Marginal) in Working Age-Group 15-59

         Table 2.2.1 presents work participation rates in the working age group 15-59 for both rural and urban areas by sex. The picture is almost same as revealed by the crude work participation rates. The only difference, that is important to be noted, is that the work participation when considered out of the working age gets doubled than that of the crude rates described in earlier sections. The declining trend in male work participation rates is very much confirmed from Table 2.2.1 and this is true for most of the states unlike female work participation rates which shows a significant increase at the national level as well as for most of the states and union territories. The declining trend in work participation rates of males is true for both rural and urban areas.

2.3. Growth Rates of Workers

2.3.1 Growth rates of all workers (Main +Marginal)

       It may be seen from figures 2.3.1 and 2,3.2 that the growth rates of total workforce (Main+Marginal) by residence and sex have increased during 1981 to 2001. The growth rate of urban workers is significantly high for both sexes compared to the growth rates of rural workforce.         It may   further be noted that the growth rate of female workforce has shown a reduction during 1991-2001 compared to the decade 1981-1991; On the other hand, the growth rates of male workers have doubled during the same period.

Figure: 2.3.1 Growth Rate (Main + Marginal) by Residence in India, 1981-2001

Figure: 2.3.2 Growth Rate of Total Workers (Main + Marginal) by Sex in India, 1981-2001

.

The growth rates of total female workforce were comparatively higher than the growth rates of total male workforce for the country as a whole and for states/union territories except Punjab, Sikkim, Kerala, Goa and Pondichery during 1981-91. In most of the states also, the higher growth rates among female workforce continued during 1991-2001. Punjab shows the highest growth rate of female workforce followed by Haryana in the rural areas, whereas in the urban areas Haryana is ahead than Punjab during 1991-2001. Other developed states like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Karnataka also show very high growth rates in female workforce during 1991-2001. The higher growth rates of female workforce partly shows the success of census in capturing women workforce in the rural areas, whereas higher growth rates in urban areas indicates increased participation of women folk in the production of goods and services in most of the states. Exception may be noted in Kerala which experienced a very low rate of growth for female workforce in both rural and urban areas and same  is also true for the male workforce during the last two decades. Among the male workers, the growth rates of male workers in the urban areas are higher than the rural male workers in most of the states and union territories during the period 1991-2001.

2.3.2. Growth Rates of Main Workers

Table 2.3.2 gives an idea about the growth rates of main workers during the study period.  The growth rate of main workers declined during 1991-2001 period than 1981-1991 periods. At the national level in rural areas experienced a negative growth rate during the period 1991-2001. Among the EAG states, Bihar and Orissa have lower growth rate for male and female workers both in rural and urban areas than other EAG states during these two periods. Table 2.3.2 shows during 1991-2001, some of the state experienced negative growth in total main workers and it is mainly due to the negative growth of main workers in the rural areas.

Figure: 2.2.3 Growth Rate of Main Workers by Residence in India, 1981-2001

Figure 2.2.3 shows the growth rates of main workers by residence of India during 1981-2001.It may be noted that growth rates are remarkably higher in urban than rural areas, but show a tremendous decline from 1981-91 to 1991-2001 in both rural and urban areas. In the rural areas, there is even a negative growth in main work category during 1991-2001. 

Figure: 2.2.4 Growth Rate of Main Workers by Sex in India, 1981-2001

Figure 2.2.4 shows growth rates of main workers by sex of India during 1981-2001. It may be observed that growth rates have fallen both among male and female main workers from 1981-91 to 1991 –2001.

2.3.3. Growth Rates of Marginal Workers

There was a decline in male marginal workforce during 1981-91,but female workforce showed a modest increase. However, the situation in the following decade has changed drastically with a spectacular rise in the marginal workforce during 1991-2001. The male marginal workforce grew as high as over 20 per cent per annum during the decade 1991-2001 in both rural and urban areas. On the other hand, female workforce grew also rapidly but half of the rates of male workforce in urban areas and nearly one-fourth of the rates of male marginal workforce in rural areas.  This was precisely that the male marginal workforce experienced a negative growth during the previous decade. In all most all the states and union territories male marginal workers have experienced a negative rate of growth in both rural and urban areas during 1981-91 (see Table 2.3.3). During 1991-2001 the entire picture in the growth of marginal workers has changed in most of the states and union territories. Rise in the growth rates of marginal workforce is consistent with decline in main workforce during the decade 1991-2001. The developed states like Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Tamil Nadu shows a very high growth rate of male marginal workforce during the decade 1991-2001 in both rural and urban area. It seems that most of the jobs generated after the implementation of new economic policy are of part time nature. What is the impact of such jobs on the level of real income of the people?  One may not expect very positive results because most of such jobs originate in the unorganized sector.

Figure: 2.2.5 Growth Rate of Marginal Workers by Sex in India, 1981-2001

Figure: 2.2.6 Growth rate of Marginal Workers by Residence in India, 1981-2001

Further, the marginalisation in a segment of the workforce has been rapid in the urban  compared to the rural areas, and this is true for most of the states and union territories (see figure 2.2.6 and Table 2.3.3).

 It would be interesting to know in which sector of the economy, the marginal workforce is engaged more. The data available from 2001 census allows disaggregation by four industrial categories namely cultivators, agricultural labourer, household industry and other services. It may be seen that marginal workforce among male has grown faster in all categories except cultivators. The male marginal workforce engaged as agricultural labourer, household industry and in other services have grown nearly 30 per cent per annum compared to its half or less among female workforce (see Table 2.3.3a). The male- female differentials in growth rates are very conspicuous in all categories but the marginalisation of male force has been far greater in agricultural categories when compared to female workforce. Females show high level of marginal work force in household and other service categories compared to agricultural occupations, but even then the growth rates remains lower than that of the male workforce in all categories. Both among males and females, the growth of marginal workforce has been slow among those who returned as cultivators.   For females this even shows a negative growth in urban areas at the all India level and also in the states of Kerala and Karnataka and union territories of Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu. This indicates about the processes of switching over of the erstwhile cultivators to agricultural labourers.  In nutshell, we find that other services show very high growth rate followed by household industry and agricultural labourer. More importantly, marginal workforce engaged in household industry has grown very faster in some of the developed states like Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Chandigarh in both rural and urban areas. Same pattern is also observed in some of the lagging states like Bihar, Assam and Rajashtan and Uttara Pradesh. A high level of marginalisation of workforce is very distinctly observed in several states of northeast India particularly notable among them are the states of Arunanchal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur and Meghalaya.

2.4. Workforce in Non-Agricultural Sector

2.4.1. All Non-agricultural Workers (Main +Marginal)

The share of workforce in non-agricultural sector has increased considerably over the decades at the national level and for most of the states and union territories (see Table 2.4.1). When the share is computed for male and female workers separately it is found that the share in non-agricultural activities has increased and the difference between sexes remained more or less similar ( see also figure 2.4.1). In 1981, around one- third of the total male workers were engaged in non-agricultural activities which went up to half of the total male workers in 2001.  Northeastern states like Assam, Meghalaya and Mizoram have lower share of non-agricultural workforce than the national level. Table 2.4.1 also depicts that among the northern states/union territories, Delhi and Chandigarh have higher percentages of non-agricultural workers being more urbanized, and the states like Punjab and Haryana have gained around twenty per cent increase in non-agricultural workforce during 1981-2001. The EAG states have not done good as the share of both male and female non-agricultural workers to total workers is found to be low compared to the national level figures. Among the southern states Kerala has the highest percentage share of non-agricultural workers. In 1981 Kerala has about half of the total workers engaged in non-agricultural activities, which went up to as high as three-fourth in 2001.

Figure: 2.4.1 Percentage of Total Non-Agricultural Workers to Total Workers, India, 1981-2001

2.4.2.  Rural Non-agricultural Worker (Main +Marginal)

India is predominantly an agricultural country. Hence, a very low percentage of rural workforce is engaged in the non-agricultural sector. At the national level, around one fifth of the rural workforce were engaged in non-agricultural activities in 1981 that increased by 10 percentage points in 2001 (27 per cent). The change from 1981 to 2001 has been gradual as the increase in the non-agricultural workforce increased by nearly 5 percentage points in each decade since 1981. On the  other hand, gender differential  has not been gradual, but most of the increase in the female workforce  in non-agricultural activities has occurred  during the last decade only.  In the rural areas of the EAG states, a low share of both male and female in non-agricultural activities was observed compared to the national level. On the other hand, except Madhya Pradesh all EAG states have achieved a perceptible increase in the share of non-agricultural workers in rural areas. Among the southern states, Karnataka has the lowest percentage of non-agricultural workers in rural areas during the last two decades and in case of Kerala almost half of the rural workers were in non-agricultural category even in 1981, which is reported, nearly two-third in 200. It is evident of Table 2.4.2 that the non-agricultural sector is expanding in most of the states, but very slow in the states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharsthra.

2.4.3. Urban Non-agricultural Workers (Main +Marginal)

In urban areas nearly one-tenth of the workforce are employed in non-agricultural sector. Nearly 15 per cent women are engaged in agricultural activities i.e. twice of the men in urban areas. However, in most of the states, the share of the non-agricultural workforce has been increasing except Tamil Nadu. Some of northeastern states like Manipur and Mizoram show much higher level of agricultural workforce even in the urban areas (see Table 2.4.3).

2.4.4. Main Non-agricultural Workers

The share of main workers in non-agricultural sector has also increased considerably over the decades at the national level and for all the states and union territories. As per 1981 census around one third of the main workers are engaged in non-agricultural activities, however, the percentage increased remarkably to more than 40 per cent in 2001 at the all India level (Table 2.4.4).

Figure: 2.4.1 Percentage of Total Non-Agricultural Workers (Main) to Total Main Workers, India, 1981-2001

  In the case of both male and female main workers the percentage of non-agricultural workers was almost static during 1981 to 1991, but there has been a significant increase during the period 1991-2001. As increase has been more or less same, gender gap in non-agricultural workforce remained almost unchanged (see figure 2.4.1).

Most of the EAG states have lower percentage of non-agricultural male and female workers in the main work category than at the national level. States like Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Kerala have higher percentage of non-agricultural main workers than rest of the states. These states have gained more than 10 percentage points increase in the non-agricultural workforce during the period 1991-2001.

         The share of non-agricultural workers in main work category is very low in rural areas. At the national level, around one fifth of the rural workers in the main work category are non-agricultural workers in 1981, and it remained approximately same in 1991 but a noticeable increase is marked as more than one-fourth of total rural workers in the main work category are engaged in non-agricultural workers in 2001. However, the inequality in the percentage of male and female rural non-agricultural workers remained more or less same during the reference period (Table 2.4.5).  This is also true for urban areas (see Table 2.4.6).

2.4.5.  Marginal Non-agricultural Workers

         The percentage of non-agricultural workers to total marginal workers was 13 per cent in 1981, which declined to 10 per cent in 1991 at the national level. However, the share of marginal workers in non-agricultural sector has increased remarkably to one-fourth in 2001  (see figure 2.4.2 and Table 2.4.7). Among the major states of India, Kerala has the highest percentage of marginal workers in non-agricultural sector i.e. around 36 per cent in 1981, increased to around 39 per cent in 1991 and further increased remarkably to 64 per cent in 2001. The states like Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh has very low share of marginal workers in non-agricultural sector in 1981; however, in 2001 Punjab has more than half of its marginal workers in non-agricultural sector whereas around one-third in case of Haryana and Jammu and Kashmir. The percentage of marginal workers in non-agricultural sector is comparatively lower than the national level in all the EAG states during the study period.  Males have generally higher share in marginal workers employed in the non-agricultural sector compared to females. But in the states of Punjab and West Bengal there are higher percentages of female marginal workers in non-agricultural sector compared to males in 2001(Table 2.4.7). Further, rural and urban scenario in the composition of marginal workers is presented in Tables 2.4.8 and 2.4.9.

 Figure: 2.4.2 Percentage of Total Non-Agricultural Workers to Total Marginal Workers, India, 1981-2001

The percentage of marginal non-agricultural workers to urban marginal workers was around 27 per cent in 1981, which increased to around 47 per cent in 1991 and hopped to 80 per cent in 2001 at the national level.  Table 2.4.9 depicts that all the states and union territories have experienced noticeable increase in the percentage of marginal workers in the non-agricultural sector in the post reform period. Developed states like Maharashtra, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu have higher percentages of urban marginal workers in non-agricultural sector than the national average in 1981 but the percentage share declined by 10 to 15 percentage points in 199, but a remarkable increase is noticed in these states in 2001.

2.5. Age Composition

2.5.1. Age Composition of All Workers (Main+Marginl),

           It may be observed from Table 2.5.1 that the percentage of workers in the age below 14 has declined during the period 1981-2001. All states and union territories demonstrate this trend, but females show higher incidence of child labour than males.  The census 2001 shows that southern states have lowest incidence of child labour with Kerala showing the least one. On the other hand north-eastern states like Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland show high level of participation of children in the labour force.  Meghalaya has the highest proportion of male workers, which has more than 5 percent of male child workers in 2001.  In the case of female workers, the incidence of child labour is up to 8 per cent of the workforce in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Sikkim.

The percentage of the total male and female workers in the working age group i.e. 15 to 59 age group varies between 85 per cent to 95 per cent in most of the states and union territories. Amongst major states, the percentage of male total workers in the age group 15-59 is highest in Gujarat (92.05 per cent), but the percentage of female total workers is highest in Kerala (93.13 per cent) in 2001. The proportion of both male and female workers in the age group 60 and above has increased fastly, particularly in the last decade 1991-2001. It is worrying to note that poor states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh show very high participation of the elderly in 2001. Uttar Pradesh further shows a very high proportion of rural male workers (12 per cent) among the elderly in 2001, up from 1981. 

Map 2.2.1. Percentage of Child Labour (Male), State, India, 2001

2.2.2: Percentage of Child Labour (Female), State, India, 2001

The pattern of child labour described above may also be seen from Map 2.2.1 and 2.2.2.Tables 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 present that child labour is higher in rural than urban areas and same pattern is true for the elderly participation as well.  And Tables 2.5.4 through 2.5.9 depicts that children are more engaged as marginal workers both in rural and urban areas and same is by and large true for the elderly population as well. 

2.6.  Educational Levels

2.6.1. Distribution of All Workers by Educational Levels

          There has been a fast increase in the educational level of all workers during 1981-2001. The increase in educational level of workforce has been much faster during 1991-2001 compared to earlier decade. It may be seen from Table 2.6.1 that the literacy level among male workers was about 50 per cent in 1981, which increased to 57 per cent in 1991 and has gone up dramatically to 71 per cent in 2001.  Similarly among female workforce, only one-tenth of the workforce was literate in 1981, which increased to one-third of the female workforce in 2001. Similar effect is also seen when we analyse the education level of workers as well. For example, the percentage of total male workers with educational level matric and above was 5 percent in 1981 at the national level; it reached to 9 per cent in 1991 and much steeper rise of 27 per cent in 2001. In the case of female workers the increase is observed from 2 to 3 per cent from 1981 to 1991 and further to 9 per cent in 2001. While trend in the educational level of workers is very increasing, but the educational level reveals that human resources need to be developed far more in coming decades, at least half the male workforce should be matriculate by 2020 and we strive to achieve one-third of the female workforce to be matriculate by that time.

As expected the state of Kerala shows the highest percent of literate male workers throughout the reference period (Table 2.6.1).  In the case of female workers highest percentage of literates was shown in Mizoram.

Map 2.3.1 percentage of literate workers to total male workers of State and Union Territories of

India in 2001.

Map 2.3.1 shows the percentage of literate workers to total male workers for the states and union territories in 2001.It is observed from the map that the percentage of literate total male workers is highest in Kerala. On the other hand, Jammu Kashmir, Uttaranchal,  Utter Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Some north eastern states show very low percentage of literates among male workers. 

Map 2.3.2 percentage of literate workers to total female workers of State and Union Territories of

India in 2001.

Similarly, Map 2.3.2 shows that the percentage of literates among female workers is very high in Mizoram and Kerala, whereas the lower percentages of literates to total female workers have been found in Jammu and Kashmir, most of the EAG states and in the states of northeastern India. As expected, urban areas shows higher educational level than the rural areas in both main and marginal categories. However, the increase in educational level has been faster in rural than urban areas.