IIPS-Envis Center on Environment and Population

Published in IIPS Mumbai, ENVIS center, Volume 1, No. 2, June 2004

Population Growth, Development Process and Environmental Degradation: Issues, Concerns and Policies

By Dr. R.B. Bhagat, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai-400 088

Introduction

The world population was 2.52 billion in the year 1950 which increased to 6.06 billion in 2000 and is likely to reach 8.3 billion by the year 2030. While the population size will remain almost stationary in the more developed world during the period 2000 to 2030 around 1.2 billion, it is likely to grow from 4.87 billion to 7.1 billion during the same period in the less developed regions. Therefore most of the growth in population size is going to occur in less developed countries (UN 2001). This is likely to pose challenge for the economic growth and pressure on environmental resources in the developing countries. Furthermore, most of the population growth in the developing countries also is likely to be concentrated in the urban areas. This has implication for increased demand for energy and water resources in the urban areas. It will also pose challenges for the management of increased waste generated and air pollution.

The population growth in India is much higher than the world standard. The Indian population has grown nearly four times during the last century from 238.4 million in 1901 to 1027 million in 2001. India thinks to achieve a stable population by 2045 as envisaged in the National Population Policy 2000. As such, by the middle of this century India is likely to add approximately 400 million more population to her total population will be nearly 1.4 billion.

Earlier efforts by Malthus (1798) and latter by Boserup (1965) elucidated the relationship between population growth and development. While Malthus argued that population growth is the root cause of poverty and human sufferings, Boserup explained how technological advances and increased innovation in the agriculture was the result of increased density of population. However, both the views throw an alternative way of explaining the relationship between population growth and development. Recently environmental issues are emerging important in the relationship between population growth and development.

PAT model is generally used to assess the impact of population growth and economic development on environment. The model proposes a simple relationship between the three as follows (Ehrlich and Holdren 1971).

I = (P) x (A) x (T)

Where I = a measure of environment impact
P = Population
T= technological efficiency (use of energy in the production of per unit GNP)

The PAT model identifies consumption and production patterns proximate factors of environment degradation. It is simple to apply also. However, the model is criticized for not taking into account of several parameters as such poverty and governance (Bhagat 1997).

Impact of Development Process on Environment

There is a tremendous pressure on the environmental resources to produce more food in view of growing population. While this can be done, it all depends upon whether the increased food production is achieved without degrading the environment. The history of agricultural development in India is not encouraging as much of the agricultural production in the past has been achieved with heavy doses of chemical fertilizers and depleting the ground water resources. Wherever, surface water was available through canal irrigation, the water was used in excess leading to expansion of wastelands as a consequence of the growth of salinity and alkalinity in the soil.

Although the industrial production in the country has been well above 5 per cent per annum during the last several years, but the quality of urban environment also deteriorated rapidly during this period.It is evident in increasing air pollution and declining quality of water and in the sanitation condition in the urban areas.

A study on the ambient air quality recorded for 23 cities in the country reveals that Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) levels remains critical in many cities. Though, Sulpher- dioxide and Oxides of Nitrogen levels have registered an upward trend, they remain well within the National Ambient Air Quality Standards in all the cities. In addition to these common air pollutants, some of the toxic and carcinogenic chemicals are being detected in urban air. Very little monitoring, if any, of these pollutants is currently being done (Planning Commission 2002).

The level of waste in the event of rising level of development particularly in the large cities is enormous. Development process generates waste both at place of production as well as at the place of consumption. The safe disposal of industrial by products and household wastes are serious challenges for the environment. Open dumping and uncontrolled land filling are in most cases the main disposal methods. In such places, the uncovered garbage is the fertile ground for bacteria and viruses to develop which cause the occurrence of diseases.

Development based on the mindless exploitation of nature is unfolding disaster in several forms e.g., deforestation, desertification, land degradation, erosion, salinization, siltation, climate change, while often more gradual, has been growing rapidly in recent decades due to a combination of increased demand, improved technological means of exploitation, and the lagging pace of conservation and control.

Development projects — generally dams and irrigation projects — often involve forced resettlement and affect many aspects of human security. In India, for example, it has been estimated that over 20 million persons have been uprooted by development projects in the past three decades. Sardar Sarovar Dam project is a most notable example.

Recently, environmental issues are also taken up actively by the women. This is known as ecofeminism in the academic literature. They argue that plundering of Nature is the result of men’s greed and amounts to the increased suffering of women as it depletes.

Sources of day to day sustenance like food, water, fuel, and fodder for which women are put to more drudgery to acquire them in the event of their depletion in their vicinity.

The various impact of development process on environmental degradation is presented in Table 1.

The different forms of environmental degradations are found to operate at different scale. The manifestation of environmental degradation at local, regional, continental and global scale are summarized in Table 2

World Environment Day Themes

2003 - Water-Two Billion People are dying for it!
2002 - Give Earth a Chance
2001 - Connect with the World Wide Web of LIfe.
2000 - The Environment Millennium-Time to Act.
1999 - Our Earth-Our Futurre- Just Save It!
1998 - For Life on Earth-Save Our Seas.
1997 - For Life on Earth.
1996 - Our Earth, Our Habitat, Our Home.
1995 - We the Peoples; United for the Global Environment.
1994 - One Earth One Family.
1993 - Poverty and the Environment- Breaking the Viciuos Circle.
1992 - Only One Earth, Care and Share.
1991 - Climate Change, Need for Global Partnership.
1990 - Children and the Environment
1989 - Global Warming: Global Warning.

1988 - When People Put the Environment First, Development Will Last.
1987 - Environment and Shelter; More than A Roof.
1986 - A Tree for Peace.

1985 - Youth; Population and the Environment
1984 - Desertification
1983 - Managing and Disposing Hazardous Waste; Acid Rain and Energy.
1982 -Ten Years After Stockholm (Renewal of Environmental Concerns)
1981 - Ground Water: Toxic Chemicals in Human Food Chains.
1980 - A New Challenge for the New Decade: Development Without Destruction.
1979 - Only One Future for Our Children - Development Without Destruction.
1978 - Development Without Destruction.
1977 - Ozone Layer Environmental Concern: Lands Loss and Soil Degradation.
1976 - Water: Vital Resource for Life.
1975 - Human Settlements.
1974 - Only one Earth.

Table1: Impact of Development Activities on Environment

Development activities	Major impact on environment
Forest clearing and land resettlements	Extinction of rare species of flora and fauna, creation of condition for mosquito breeding leading to infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue etc
Shifting cultivation in upland agriculture	Soil erosion in upland areas, soil fertility declines due to shorter cultivation cycle, which is practiced due to population pressure, flooding of low land areas. The problems could be resolved by terraced cultivation.
Agro industries	Air pollution due to burning of bagasse as fuel in sugar mills, large amount of highly polluting organic wastes, surface water pollution.
Introduction of new varieties of cereals	Reduction of genetic diversity of traditional monoculture resulting in instability, danger of multiplication of local strains of fungus, bacteria or virus on new variety
Use of pesticides	The pesticides used in agriculture sometimes go into food chain or in water bodies and as such results in harmful health hazards.
Timber extraction	Degrades land, destroys surface soil, reduces production potential of future forests.
Urbanisation and industrialization	Concentration of population in urban centers make huge demands on production in rural areas and put pressures on land, air and water pollution.
Water resource projects, e.g. Dam, extensive irrigation	Human settlement and resettlement spread of water borne diseases, reduction of fisheries, siltation, and physical changes e.g. temperature, humidity.

Source: Central Statistical Organisation (1999).

Table 2: Local, Regional and Global Effects of Pollution

Local effects	Regional	Over marine water and continents	Global
Heavy metals in air, soil and plants, e.g. From industrial emissions and Discharges-Noise, Smell, Air pollution.	Eutrophication, Contaminants in the soil, Landscape changes due to mining or agriculture.	Eutrophication Acidification Environment Contaminants Radioactivity	Changes of the climate due to ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect.

Source: Central Statistical Organization n (1999 ).

Development process and Sources of Energy

The present development process heavily relies on non-renewable sources of energy i.e., fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gases. The exploitation of these sources of energy has also increased manifold in the recent years. In fact, development is seen in terms of their increasing use. In recent years, the means of transportation using these sources of energy have expanded in many parts of the globe along with tremendous increase in the use of vehicles at individual level in the cities and towns across the world. As a result the fossil fuels demands and their exploitation have increased several fold in recent times.

Energy demand in future will further grow. The share of the developing countries in energy use is likely to increase from 26 per cent in 1991 to 40 percent in 2020 (The World Resource Institute 1995). If this demand were to be met with the use of fossil fuels, the environmental consequences will be dire at both local and global levels. On the other hand, in spite of increased use of energy in developing countries, the per capita consumption is likely to be still much lower. Presently, the per capita consumption in developing countries is less than one sixth that in the industrialized countries and less than one tenth that in US.

In the rural areas of developing countries, the energy use is not environmental friendly. People often burn raw coal, wood and other biofuels in open fireplaces and low-efficiency stoves and heaters, wasting energy and releasing dangerous pollutants.

An environmental friendly, sustainable and affordable source of energy is crucial for the sustainable development. Hydroelectricity, thermal power, nuclear, solar and wind sources of energy will play a vital role in safeguarding the global environment.

Environmental Degradation and Its Health Implications

The health impact of environmental degradation falls into two broad categories. The first is a lack of access to essential environmental resources such as clean water, food, shelter, fuel and air. The second broad category is exposure to hazards in the environment. These hazards include biological agents-microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses and parasites that contribute to the huge global burden of infectious diseases. Biological agents are implicated in diseases from diarrhea to acute respiratory infections, to malaria, to ulcers, and to some cancers. Also included are noxious chemical and physical hazards in the environment. Some pollutants, such as pesticides and industrial solvents, are created by human activities. Others, including arsenic or ultraviolet

(UV) radiation, occur naturally in the environment, although exposure can be intensified by human activities. Impact of Pollutants and their related Health Hazards.

Table 3 : Pollutants and their related Health Hazards

Pollutants	Health Effects
Carbon Monoxide (from gasoline cars, 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers)	Aggravates heart disorders; effects central nervous system; impairs oxygen carrying capacity of blood
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) (from diesel vehicles)	Irritation of respiratory tract
Ozone	Eye, nose and throat irritation; risk asthmatics, children and those involved in heavy exercise.
Lead (from petrol vehicles)	Extremely toxic; effects nervous system and blood; can impair mental development of children; causes hypertension
Hydrocarbons (mainly from 2-wheelers and 3-wheelers)	Drowsiness, eye irritation, coughing
Benzene	Carcinogenic (cancer causing element)
Aldehydes	Irritation of eyes, nose and throat, sneezing, coughing nausea, breathing difficulties; carcinogenic in animals
Polycyclic AromaticHydrocarbons PAH (from diesel vehicles)	carcinogenic

Source: CSO 1999

These pollutants can undermine health in various ways by contributing to cancer or birth defects or perhaps by damaging the body’s im- mune system, which renders people more sus- ceptible to a variety of other health risks (WRI 1994-95). The impact of some of the pollutants on health is presented in Table 3.

WHO recently estimated that the contribution of environment including the work place in the occurrence of cancer is at 25 per cent (WHO 1997).

More than 2 million deaths occur due to water pollution annually. The excessive urban particulate (SPM) is responsible for 3 to 7 lakh premature deaths annually and half of childhood chronic coughing (World Bank, 1992). The impact of environmental degradation is likely to vary from m country to country depending upon their level of development and health infrastructure to cope with these emerging threats to human health.

Environmental Policies and Regulations:

The laws to regulate pollution have been responsible for cleaner air and water in many countries. At community level, the conservation efforts and recycling of ecological resources have also yielded desired results (De Souza, Roger- Mark, William, J.S. and Meyerson, Frederick, A. B. 2003).

At international level, the Montreal Protocol adopted in 1987 envisioned to cease the CFCs (the ozone depleting substances) production by the year 1996. The Protocol turned to be very successful effort in curbing the consumption of CFCs by more than 70 per cent in a decade’s time (World Resources Institute, UNEP, UNDP and World Bank 1998).

However, a major threat to world climate by global warming looms large in the event of release of greenhouse gases. This requires making a balance between the pace of economic development and the release of greenhouse gases in the environment. Some international efforts have been made in this direction among them Kyoto Protocol is very significant which fixes the targets of greenhouse gases reduction by the developed countries by 2012. Without commitment to this protocol by the developed countries, the spectre of global warming cannot be halted. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in December 1997 was considered to be the first international attempts to place legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions from developed countries. It considered the six gases namely carbon di oxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride. The Protocol specifically aimed to cut the combined emissions of greenhouse gases from developed countries by roughly 5 per cent from their 1990 levels by the year 2012.

Table 4: Target Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions by 2012, Kyoto Protocol

Country	Target (% change from 1990 emissions)
Australia	+8
Bulgaria	-8
Canada	-6
Croatia	-5
Estonia	-8
European Union	-8
Hungary	-6
Iceland	+10
Japan	-6
Norway	+1
Poland	-6
Russian Federation	0
Switzerland	-8
US	-7

The Kyoto Protocol provided that if a country’s emission level falls below the treaty limit, then it can sell the credit to another nation which in turn can use the credit to meet its own obligations. However, this Protocol has not been implemented due to lack of consensus among nations. The US, which is the biggest contributor of greenhouse gases and where this is likely to increase by 34 per cent in 2010 from the level of 1990, does not find the Protocol amenable to its interests.

In India, the constitutional provision s in terms of the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution effected country. The Supreme Court and High have played an active role in the enforcement of constitutional provisions and legislations relating to environmental protection. The fundamental right to life and personal liberty enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution has been interpreted by the courts to include the right to pollution- free air and water (Curmally 2002).

As we know that a major accident in an industrial plant of Union Carbide took place in Bhopal in December 1984. The release of the deadly methyl isocyanate gas from the plant killed more than 2000 people. This incidence was a turning point to apply the stringent government measures to protect people and the environment by enacting the comprehensive law on environmental protection in the country. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has reviewed the earlier laws on Water Prevention and Pollution Act 1974 and Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 and framed a comprehensive Environmental Protection Act in 1986. The act authorized the Ministry of Environment and Forests to initiate action to close down any firm that violated the act’s restrictions regarding effluent discharge, and permitted individuals to initiate legal action against any one violating the act. Ministry of Environment and Forests acts through Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). Since passage of the act in 1986, the Ministry of Environment and Forests issued numerous closure notices. However, firms routinely obtain stays against closure, shifting decisions to the judiciary and stalling action for years.

Another significant change introduced after the Bhopal accident is the requirement of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for specified industries including small and private companies. Earlier EIAs were carried out only for big government projects.In recent years, the Indian judiciary has been very active in passing judgments to protect the environment. These are mainly done through the public litigation petitions filed by the individuals and NGOs before the courts. The courts have pronounced, invoking the provisions in the constitution, that it is the fundamental duty of every Indian citizen to protect and improve the natural environment and to have compassion for living creatures.But, all these efforts have not yielded very satisfactory results. The reasons are many. Among them the technical capabilities pollution control boards and their understaffed position, poor commitment at the corporate level, lack of comprehensive industrial zoning policy and dearth of relevant cost effective technologies are some of the important factors hindering environmental protection in the country (The World Resources Institute 1995).

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